Making Prehistory Great Again
Neanderthal brain and cognition reconsidered
Thomas Schoenemann et al.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 12 May 2026
Abstract:
Neanderthal endocrania are different in shape, though slightly larger in size than modern humans on average. These shape differences have long been used to suggest Neanderthals differed cognitively from modern humans, e.g., by having inferior linguistic/symbolic ability, poorer executive function, and/or smaller episodic and working memory capacity. However, whether the morphological differences in their brains inferred from their endocrania indicate truly meaningful cognitive/behavioral differences -- with real evolutionary implications -- is not clear. Recent work using deformation mapping techniques suggested there had been significant brain differences between Neanderthal and the anatomically modern Homo sapiens (amHs) that were contemporary with them. However the inferred differences were not put into the context of modern human populational variation in brain anatomy, which is known to be substantial. We estimate MRI brain region volumes in two modern population samples (US and Chinese) using deformation mapping and find similar sized differences to those reported for Neanderthal vs. amHs, with 9 of 13 brain regions showing larger absolute differences for US vs. Chinese samples as compared to reported Neanderthal vs. amHs differences. To the extent that brain anatomy differences indicate cognitive differences, this suggests that cognitive differences between Neanderthals and amHs would have comfortably fit within the range found among modern human populations -- which are generally not considered evolutionarily significant. In fact, the endocranial differences between Neanderthal and their contemporaries predict cognitive difference effect sizes of only 0.14 SDs or less. This undermines the suggestion that Neanderthal replacement occurred because of cognitive limitations.
Earliest evidence for invasive mitigation of dental caries by Neanderthals
Alisa Zubova et al.
PLoS ONE, May 2026
Abstract:
Neanderthal medical knowledge has long attracted scholarly interest. Evidence suggests they cared for sick, injured, and elderly group members, with possible use of medicinal plants. However, it remains uncertain whether such practices reflect deliberate medical strategies or instinctive self-medication akin to that observed in non-human primates. Here, we analyze and interpret traces of deliberate artificial manipulation of Chagyrskaya 64, a Neanderthal lower left second molar found in Chagyrskaya Cave (Altai Krai, Russia). The tooth exhibits a large human-generated concavity on the occlusal surface, created during the lifetime of the individual. Traceological and microtomographic analyses of the observed modifications, combined with experimental verification, reveal that the concavity in Chagyrskaya 64 is indicative of the earliest documented instance of caries treatment involving the drilling/rotating with a lithic perforator, ca. 59 ka. Evidence of two distinct types of manipulations requiring different tools, in addition to the drilling/rotating technique, necessitating complex finger movements, indicates that the Chagyrskaya Cave Neanderthals possessed the cognitive capacity to intuit the source of pain, comprehend the feasibility of its elimination, and deliberately select the most efficacious dental intervention. These patterns bring Neanderthal behavior closer to modern humans and differentiate that behavior from the instinctive actions of other primates.
Long-distance genetic relatedness in megalithic central Europe
Nicolas Antonio Da Silva et al.
Science, 21 May 2026, Pages 839-844
Abstract:
Megalithic monuments in Late Neolithic Europe are often viewed as symbols of shared ancestry. In this study, we analyzed genome-wide data of 203 individuals buried in six megalithic grave complexes associated with the Western Funnel Beaker and Wartberg groups. Despite being considered archaeologically distinct, our results show that the studied individuals from both groups form a genetically homogeneous population. Moreover, we identified first- and second-degree relationships spanning up to 225 km, revealing unexpectedly long-distance ties and sustained intersite and intergroup mobility. The six grave complexes functioned as communal burial grounds and were not exclusively used for close genetic relatives, indicating that social kinship played an important role. Limited evidence for genetic connections to distant European megalithic populations indicates that monumentality spread culturally rather than through biological networks.
Enamel proteins from six Homo erectus specimens across China
Qiaomei Fu et al.
Nature, forthcoming
Abstract:
Homo erectus remains have been found in Africa, Eurasia and Southeast Asia, dating back around two million years; however, owing to their age and state of preservation, obtaining informative molecular data from them has proved challenging. Here we successfully extracted and analysed ancient enamel proteins from five male and one female Middle Pleistocene H. erectus specimens from approximately 0.4 million years ago, from the Zhoukoudian, Hexian and Sunjiadong sites. All specimens from all three sites share two amino acid variants. Of these, A253G in AMBN is previously unknown and has not been identified in other human lineages, including H. erectus from Dmanisi (Georgia), Homo antecessor from Atapuerca (Spain), Denisovans, Neanderthals and modern humans. The other variant, AMBN(M273V), has previously been identified in Denisovans, and our evidence now indicates it may have been introduced through populations related to these Middle Pleistocene H. erectus. The regions in the Denisovan genome attributed to super-archaic introgression, some of which later passed to modern humans, are likely to have originated from H. erectus. Late Middle Pleistocene H. erectus may have coexisted with Denisovans in parts of East Asia, where these interactions are presumed to have occurred.
Early evidence for a stable and flexible foraging niche in the evolution of Homo
Frances Forrest et al.
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 19 May 2026
Abstract:
Major evolutionary transitions in Homo (e.g., increased brain size, complex social behavior) are linked to reliance on high-quality foods. Increased meat consumption likely contributed to this shift, but whether hominins practiced carcass acquisition and processing strategies consistently across time and environments remains unclear. The Koobi Fora Formation spans much of the Plio-Pleistocene and is central to reconstructing the ecology of early Homo. However, zooarchaeological research has focused almost entirely on the Okote Member (~1.56 to 1.38 Ma), while the KBS Member (~1.87 to 1.56 Ma) has yielded important hominin fossils but relatively few faunal assemblages comparably well preserved for similar analysis. We present an analysis of FwJj 80 (~1.6 Ma), an assemblage from the KBS Member that preserves butchered fauna associated with early Homo fossils. Results show that behaviors documented in the Okote Member, including early access to carcasses, selective transport of limbs, and systematic marrow extraction within riparian settings, were also practiced at FwJj 80. This provides the most comprehensive and systematically analyzed evidence of such behaviors within the KBS Member, demonstrating continuity in carcass-exploitation patterns between the KBS and Okote Members. Comparisons with FLK Zinj (~1.84 Ma, Tanzania) and Kanjera South (~2.0 Ma, Kenya) demonstrate a consistent foraging niche sustained across varied environmental contexts, underscoring behavioral flexibility as central to early Homo’s evolutionary success.