Join the club
Benjamin Newman
American Journal of Political Science, forthcoming
Abstract:
This article ties together research on gender, income inequality, and political ideology, by exploring the effect of gender-based earnings inequality on women's belief in a fundamental tenet of the “American Dream” — meritocracy. Focusing on gender-based earnings inequality in women's local residential context, and drawing upon relative deprivation theory, this article argues that variation across local areas in the relative economic status of women should influence the ideological outlook of resident women. In contrast to relative deprivation theory, but consistent with rising expectations theory, I argue that ideological disillusionment should peak in contexts in which women's earnings fall closely behind men, and that ideological optimism should rebound in contexts in which women's earnings have achieved parity with that of men. Utilizing pooled survey data, I find strong evidence that individual women's belief in the American Dream varies according to whether local women's relative earnings indicate confrontation with or breaking of the “glass ceiling.”
---------------------
Room for Debate (and Derogation): Negativity of Readers’ Comments on Black Authors’ Online Content
Rachel Sumner, Maclen Stanley & Anthony Burrow
Psychology of Popular Media Culture, forthcoming
Abstract:
When most people think of anonymous comments written on online content, they think of messages that are overtly negative and offensive. Previous research suggests that readers of online content about race may react more negatively to authors who are members of stigmatized racial groups. In 2 studies, we tested this possibility with respect to online content written by Black and White authors. In Study 1, we analyzed readers’ comments on actual race-related opinion-editorial (op-ed) essays published on The New York Times’ Room for Debate blog over a 1-year period. As predicted, readers wrote more (and more negative) comments on Black authors’ op-eds compared to comments written on White authors’ op-eds. Study 2, which included information about the readers, revealed that people who rate themselves as likely to comment online are also more likely to have negative reactions to Black authors’ content. Implications for race-related online content and directions for future research are discussed.
---------------------
Confidence Men? Gender and Confidence: Evidence among Top Economists
Heather Sarsons & Guo Xu
Harvard Working Paper, June 2015
Abstract:
Does a confidence gap exist between men and women who made it to the very top of their careers? Using data from a select group of economists working in top U.S. universities, we find that women are still less confident than men along two margins. First, when asked about their level of agreement on survey questions about the economy, women are less likely to give “extreme” answers in which they strongly agree or disagree. Second, women are less confident in the accuracy of their answer. The results persist after controlling for the year the PhD was granted, the PhD awarding institution, the current institution, and the number of solo and co-authored publications up to the point of tenure. We provide suggestive evidence that the confidence gap is driven by women being less confident when asked questions that are outside their field of expertise.
---------------------
Ekaterina Netchaeva, Maryam Kouchaki & Leah Sheppard
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, forthcoming
Abstract:
Across three studies, we investigate men’s reactions to women in superior roles. Drawing from precarious manhood theory, we hypothesize that when a woman occupies a superior organizational role, men in subordinate positions experience threat, which leads them to behave more assertively toward her and advocate for themselves. In Studies 1 and 2, we demonstrate that men feel more threatened (relative to women) by women in superior roles (relative to men in superior roles) and, as a result, engage in more assertive behaviors toward these women. In Study 3, we investigate a boundary condition to this effect and demonstrate that a woman in a superior role who displays qualities associated with administrative agency (e.g., directness, proactivity) rather than ambitious agency (e.g., self-promotion, power-seeking) elicits less assertive behavior from men. We conclude by discussing implications as well as directions for future research.
---------------------
The Role of Proximal Social Contexts: Assessing Stigma-by-Association Effects on Leader Appraisals
Morela Hernandez et al.
Journal of Applied Psychology, forthcoming
Abstract:
Prior research suggests that segregation in the U.S. workplace is on the rise (Hellerstein, Neumark, & McInerney, 2008); as such, leaders are more likely to lead groups of followers composed primarily of their own race (Elliot & Smith, 2001; Smith & Elliott, 2002). Drawing from theory on stigma-by-association, the authors posit that such segregated proximal social contexts (i.e., the leader’s group of followers) can have detrimental effects on leader appraisals. Specifically, they argue that leaders of mostly Black follower groups experience stigmatization based on race stereotypic beliefs, which affects how they are viewed in the eyes of observers. The results of a large field study show performance evaluations generally tend to be lower when the proportion of Black followers is higher. Moreover, 3 experiments demonstrate that the impact of proximal social contexts extends to other outcomes (i.e., perceptions of market value and competency) but appears limited to those who are less internally and externally motivated to control their prejudice. Taken together, these findings explain how workplace segregation systematically can create a particular disadvantage for Black leaders.
---------------------
Paul Morgan et al.
Educational Researcher, June/July 2015, Pages 278-292
Abstract:
We investigated whether minority children attending U.S. elementary and middle schools are disproportionately represented in special education. We did so using hazard modeling of multiyear longitudinal data and extensive covariate adjustment for potential child-, family-, and state-level confounds. Minority children were consistently less likely than otherwise similar White, English-speaking children to be identified as disabled and so to receive special education services. From kindergarten entry to the end of middle school, racial- and ethnic-minority children were less likely to be identified as having (a) learning disabilities, (b) speech or language impairments, (c) intellectual disabilities, (d) health impairments, or (e) emotional disturbances. Language-minority children were less likely to be identified as having (a) learning disabilities or (b) speech or language impairments.
---------------------
Tomeka Davis
Race Ethnicity and Education, forthcoming
Abstract:
As the number of biracial individuals in the US continues to grow, so does research focused on them. While some of this literature examines how biracials fare on a host of social outcomes, little research examines whether part-white biracials are able to use their whiteness as a resource to gain additional resources or rewards. This research seeks to close this gap. Using data from the 1st grade wave of the Early Childhood Longitudinal Study-Kindergarten-Class (ECLS-K), I examine whether the parental involvement of white mothers of black/white and Hispanic/white biracial students leads to higher teacher ratings for these children compared to their monoracial minority counterparts. I find the involvement of white mothers results in higher teacher ratings for part-white biracial children, but only when the teacher is white. I conclude that whiteness serves as a symbolic and social capital resource that enhances biracial educational outcomes when it is invoked.
---------------------
Attitudes Toward Women’s Work and Family Roles in the United States, 1976–2013
Kristin Donnelly et al.
Psychology of Women Quarterly, forthcoming
Abstract:
We examine time period and generational differences in attitudes toward women’s work and family roles in two large, nationally representative U.S. samples, the Monitoring the Future survey of 12th graders (1976–2013) and the General Social Survey of adults (1977–2012). Twelfth graders became more accepting of working mothers and equal roles for women in the workplace between the 1970s and the 2010s, with most change occurring between the 1970s and the late 1990s. Acceptance of dual-income families and fathers working half-time or not at all (stay-at-home dads) also increased. Thus, for the most part, Millennials (born 1980s–1990s) have continued trends toward more egalitarian gender roles. However, slightly more 12th graders in the 2010s (vs. the late 1990s) favored the husband as the achiever and decision maker in the family. Adults’ attitudes toward working mothers became more egalitarian between the 1970s and the early 1990s, showed a small “backlash” in the late 1990s, and then continued the trend toward increased egalitarianism in the 2000s and 2010s. In hierarchical linear modeling analyses separating the effects of time period, generation/cohort, and age, trends were primarily due to time period with a generational peak in egalitarianism among White women Boomers (born 1946–1964). Policy makers should recognize that support for working mothers is now a solid majority position in the United States and design programs for working families accordingly.
---------------------
Gender Differences in Recognition for Group Work
Heather Sarsons
Harvard Working Paper, June 2015
Abstract:
Within academia, men are tenured at higher rates than women are in most quantitative fields, including economics. Researchers have attempted to identify the source of this disparity but find that nearly 30% of the gap remains unexplained even after controlling for family commitments and differences in productivity. Using data from academic economists' CVs, I test whether coauthored and solo-authored publications matter differently for tenure for men and women. While solo-authored papers send a clear signal about one's ability, coauthored papers are noisy in that they do not provide specific information about each contributor's skills. I find that men are tenured at roughly the same rate regardless of whether they coauthor or solo-author. Women, however, suffer a significant penalty when they coauthor. The results hold after controlling for the total number of papers published, quality of papers, field of study, tenure institution, tenure year, and the number of years it took an individual to go up for tenure. The result is most pronounced for women coauthoring with only men and is less pronounced the more women there are on a paper, suggesting that some gender bias is at play. I present a model in which bias enters when workers collaborate and test its predictions in the data.
---------------------
Gender Gaps in Overestimation of Math Performance
Shane Bench et al.
Sex Roles, June 2015, Pages 536-546
Abstract:
In the United States, men are more likely to pursue math-intense STEM courses and careers than women. This investigation explored whether positivity bias in the degree to which people overestimate their past performance contributes to this gender gap. To find out, two studies were conducted with undergraduate college students in the Southern United States. In Study 1, participants (n = 122) completed a math test and estimated the percent they had solved. They then were given feedback and completed a second math test and estimation. Men overestimated their performance more than women, judging they had done better on the test than they actually had. This gender difference was not present after feedback. Further, women, but not men, who reported a more positive previous experience with math were more likely to overestimate their performance. In Study 2, participants (n = 184) completed a math test and estimated the percent they had solved. They also reported their interest in pursuing math courses and careers. Again, men overestimated their performance more than women. This greater overestimation of performance in men accounted for their greater intent to pursue math fields compared to women. The findings suggest that gender gaps in STEM fields are not necessarily the result of women underestimating their abilities, but rather may be due to men overestimating their abilities.
---------------------
Selection Bias: Stereotypes and Discrimination Related to Having a History of Cancer
Larry Martinez et al.
Journal of Applied Psychology, forthcoming
Abstract:
Although great strides have been made in increasing equality and inclusion in organizations, a number of stigmatized groups are overlooked by diversity initiatives, including people with a history of cancer. To examine the workplace experiences of these individuals in selection contexts, we conducted 3 complementary studies that assess the extent to which cancer is disclosed, the stereotypes associated with cancer in the workplace, and discrimination resulting from these stereotypes. In a pilot study, we surveyed 196 individuals with a history of cancer (across 2 samples) about their workplace disclosure habits. In Study 1, we explored stereotypes related to employees with a history of cancer using the framework outlined by the stereotype content model. In Study 2, we used a field study to assess the experiences of job applicants who indicated they were “cancer survivors” (vs. not) with both formal and interpersonal forms of discrimination. This research shows that cancer is disclosed at relatively high rates (pilot study), those with a history of cancer are stereotyped as being higher in warmth than competence (Study 1), and the stereotypes associated with those who have had cancer result in actual discrimination toward them (Study 2). We discuss the theory behind these findings and aim to inform both science and practice with respect to this growing workplace population.
---------------------
Insidious Procedures: Diversity Awards Legitimize Unfair Organizational Practices
Teri Kirby, Cheryl Kaiser & Brenda Major
Social Justice Research, June 2015, Pages 169-186
Abstract:
Does the presence (versus absence) of an organizational diversity award increase the perceived fairness of biased personnel procedures? Participants examined fair or unfair personnel procedures at a company that had received a diversity award or an award unrelated to diversity. When the company had received a diversity award (versus a control award), participants perceived the unfair personnel procedure as fairer for minorities, and White participants were more supportive of enacting the biased procedure. These findings suggest that organizations perceived as successfully supporting diversity might be afforded particular legitimacy to enact policies and procedures that disadvantage the very groups they are perceived as valuing.
---------------------
Latino Physicians in the United States, 1980–2010: A Thirty-Year Overview From the Censuses
Gloria Sánchez et al.
Academic Medicine, July 2015, Pages 906–912
Purpose: To update and extend a 2000 study on the California Latino physician workforce, the authors examined the Latino physician workforce in the 30-year time frame spanning 1980 to 2010, comparing changes in the rates of physicians per 100,000 population for the Latino and non-Hispanic white (NHW) populations in the United States as a whole and in the five states with (in 2010) the largest Latino populations.
Method: The authors used detailed data from the U.S. Census (Public Use Microdata Samples for 1980–2010) to identify total population, total number of physicians, and Spanish-language ability for both the Latino and NHW populations. They examined nativity for only Latinos.
Results: At the national level, the NHW physician rate per 100,000 of the NHW population increased from 211 in 1980 to 315 in 2010 while the Latino physician rate per 100,000 of the Latino population dropped over the same period from 135 to 105. With small variations, the same trend occurred in all five of the states examined. At the national and state levels, Latino physicians were far more likely to speak Spanish than NHW physicians. Over the 30-year period, the Latino physician population has evolved from being primarily foreign born to being about evenly split between foreign born and U.S. born.
Conclusions: The Latino physician shortage has worsened over the past 30 years. The authors recommend immediate action on the national and local level to increase the supply of Latino physicians.
---------------------
End of An Era? Managerial Losses of African American and Latinos in the Public Sector
George Wilson & Vincent Roscigno
Social Science Research, forthcoming
Abstract:
In this article, we examine whether “new governance” reforms in public sector work over the last two decades have generated managerial wage losses for African Americans and Latinos. Findings from Integrated Public Use Micro-Series data across three time points indicate that the new “business logic” encompassing, most notably, increased employer discretion has progressively disadvantaged African American and Latino men and women relative to their White and gender counterparts. Indeed, for both African Americans and Latinos in the managerial ranks, relative parity in wages that were witnessed in the public sector progressively eroded between 2000 and 2010. Qualifications to these findings indicate that levels of inequality become pronounced for African Americans, and more so among men than women. We discuss the historical niche status of public sector work for racial and ethnic minorities in the U.S. and the importance of conducting further analyses of the public sector because of its fluid nature as a locus of racial stratification.
---------------------
Cindy Zapata, Andrew Carton & Joseph Liu
Academy of Management Journal, forthcoming
Abstract:
Accumulated knowledge on organizational justice leaves little reason to doubt the notion that organizational members benefit when leaders adhere to interpersonal justice rules. However, upon considering how justice behaviors influence subordinates' cognitive processes, we predict that interpersonal justice has a surprising, unintended negative consequence. Supervisors who violate interpersonal justice rules trigger subordinates to search for reasons why their supervisors are threatening them, causing subordinates to be more attuned to supervisors' individual characteristics and therefore unlikely to use stereotypes when evaluating them. In contrast, supervisors who adhere to interpersonal justice rules allow subordinates to divert attention away from them, leading subordinates' judgments of their supervisors to be influenced by stereotypes. Consistent with these predictions, in a survey we found that minority supervisors faced bias relative to Caucasian supervisors when supervisors adhered to — but not when they violated — interpersonal justice rules. We replicated this effect in an experiment and established that it is explained by an alternating pattern of stereotype activation and inhibition: participants viewed minority supervisors to be more deceitful than Caucasians when supervisors adhered to — but not when they violated — interpersonal justice rules. We then conducted exploratory analyses and identified one factor (unit size) that mitigates this troubling pattern.
---------------------
Alexa Perryman, Guy Fernando & Arindam Tripathy
Journal of Business Research, forthcoming
Abstract:
Women have made great strides in recent years in climbing the corporate ladder, yet the current corporate landscape suggests that obstacles still exist before true gender equity is achieved. We investigate the impact of gender diversity in top management teams (TMTs) on firm performance and firm risk, in conjunction with examining the moderating effect of gender diversity on executive compensation. We find that firms with greater gender diversity in TMTs show lower risk and deliver better performance. In turn, female executives were found to be paid less than their male colleagues, even at the TMT level. However, as gender diversity in the TMT increases, compensation differences between the genders decrease. As such, we highlight a failure in the employment market place and also point to continuing challenges faced by female executives in their search for parity in TMTs.
---------------------
Stereotype threat, Mental Arithmetic, and the Mere Effort Account
Allison Seitchik & Stephen Harkins
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, forthcoming
Abstract:
The currently prevailing explanation for stereotype threat (ST) debilitation effects argues for working memory interference as the proximal mediator. Using mental arithmetic problems as the test bed, Beilock et al. (2007) have spelled out in greater detail exactly how this process might work. They propose that worries resulting from activation of the negative stereotype occupy the phonological loop, taking up capacity that could be used to remember the intermediate values produced when solving horizontal mental subtraction problems. In the current work, we test an alternative, motivational account for this effect, mere effort. The mere effort account argues that ST motivates stigmatized participants to want to perform well, potentiating the prepotent response on the given task. In Experiment 1 we identified a possible prepotent response for horizontal subtraction, termed the method of adjustment (e.g., adjust the second number to the nearest 10, subtract the two numbers, and then add the adjustment). Consistent with the mere effort account, Experiment 2 showed that ST potentiated the prepotent approach, the method of adjustment. Experiment 3 pitted the mere effort account against the working memory account. Working memory predicts debilitation effects on horizontal subtraction problems when participants need to use the phonological loop (i.e., entering answers from left-to-right), whereas mere effort predicts that the potentiated use of the method of adjustment should facilitate performance when answers must be entered from left-to-right. Results supported the mere effort account. Finally, Experiment 4 showed that when we control for the effect of the potentiated prepotent response, instead of performing more poorly, threatened participants perform better than no threat participants. Overall, these experiments support the mere effort account, which argues for motivation as a core process in producing ST effects.