Freaked out
Rethinking Stress: The Role of Mindsets in Determining the Stress Response
Alia Crum, Peter Salovey & Shawn Achor
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, forthcoming
Abstract:
This article describes 3 studies that explore the role of mindsets in the context of stress. In Study 1, we present data supporting the reliability and validity of an 8-item instrument, the Stress Mindset Measure (SMM), designed to assess the extent to which an individual believes that the effects of stress are either enhancing or debilitating. In Study 2, we demonstrate that stress mindsets can be altered by watching short, multimedia film clips presenting factual information biased toward defining the nature of stress in 1 of 2 ways (stress-is-enhancing vs. stress-is-debilitating). In Study 3, we demonstrate the effect of stress mindset on physiological and behavioral outcomes, showing that a stress-is-enhancing mindset is associated with moderate cortisol reactivity and high desire for feedback under stress. Together, these 3 studies suggest that stress mindset is a distinct and meaningful variable in determining the stress response.
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Morale as a Moderator of the Combat Exposure-PTSD Symptom Relationship
Thomas Britt et al.
Journal of Traumatic Stress, February 2013, Pages 94-101
Abstract:
We examined morale as a moderator of the relationship between combat exposure and posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) symptoms in a longitudinal study of U.S. soldiers who had participated in a deployment to Iraq. Soldiers (N = 636) completed assessments at 4 (Time 1) and 10 (Time 2) months following their combat deployment. Combat exposure (both breadth and perceived stressfulness), morale, and PTSD symptoms were assessed at Time 1, and PTSD symptoms were assessed again at Time 2. Results of multivariate multiple regressions revealed that morale at Time 1 interacted with both the breadth and stressfulness of combat exposure to predict PTSD symptoms at both Time 1 and Time 2, even when partialling out the effect of unit support. The slope of the given combat exposure and PTSD symptoms relationship was weaker when reports of morale were higher (with the effect size of the interaction ranging from .01 to .04). The results suggest that morale may buffer soldiers from the negative consequences of combat stressors.
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Matthew Jakupcak et al.
Psychology of Men & Masculinity, forthcoming
Abstract:
The association between endorsement of emotional "toughness" (i.e., extreme self-reliance and the suppression of outward displays of emotional distress) and likelihood for screening positive for mental health conditions was examined in a male sample of 198 Iraq and Afghanistan veterans presenting for postdeployment Veteran Affairs health care. After accounting for relevant covariates, veterans endorsing higher levels of emotional toughness were more likely to screen positive for posttraumatic stress disorder and depression. There was also a nonsignificant trend (p = .08) associated with a positive relationship between toughness and likelihood of self-reported alcohol abuse. Results are discussed in terms of identifying and addressing toughness norms among returning veterans to promote effective use of mental health services.
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Alexandra Sedlovskaya et al.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, forthcoming
Abstract:
The present studies are the first in which social psychological methods were used to test the popular claim that the experience of concealing a stigmatized social identity leads to a "divided self." For people with concealable stigmas, concealment in public settings makes the public-private dimension of self-expression particularly salient, leading them to organize self-relevant information along this dimension. The result is a strengthened cognitive distinction between public and private aspects of the self, what we have termed public-private schematization. We developed and tested a measure of the cognitive accessibility of the distinction between public and private self-schemas by measuring how quickly participants sorted trait attributes into self-in-public (e.g., self-at-work) and self-in-private (e.g., self-at-home). People with more accessible distinct public and private self-schemas should be faster at categorizing trait attributes into public- and private-self aspects than those with more integrated public and private self-schemas. Relative to people without such identities, people with concealable stigmas (Study 1a, sexual orientation; Study 1b, religiosity at a secular college), show greater public-private schematization. This schematization is linked to concealment (Study 2) and to the experimental activation of concealable versus conspicuous stigmatized identities (Study 3). Implications of distinct public and private self-schemas for psychological well-being are explored in Studies 4 and 5. Two different measures of distress - perceived social stress (Study 4) and depressive symptoms (Study 5) - provided evidence showing that the accessibility of the distinction between public and private self-schemas accounted for the association of concealment on heightened distress. Implications for research on concealment and self-structure are discussed.
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Displacement Behaviour Is Associated with Reduced Stress Levels among Men but Not Women
Changiz Mohiyeddini, Stephanie Bauer & Stuart Semple
PLoS ONE, February 2013
Abstract:
Sex differences in the ability to cope with stress may contribute to the higher prevalence of stress-related disorders among women compared to men. We recently provided evidence that displacement behaviour - activities such as scratching and face touching - represents an important strategy for coping with stressful situations: in a healthy population of men, displacement behaviour during a social stress test attenuated the relationship between anxiety experienced prior to this test, and the subsequent self-reported experience of stress. Here, we extend this work to look at physiological and cognitive (in addition to self-reported) measures of stress, and study both men and women in order to investigate whether sex moderates the link between displacement behaviour and the response to stress. In a healthy study population, we quantified displacement behaviour, heart rate and cognitive performance during the Trier Social Stress Test, and used self-report questionnaires to assess the experience of stress afterwards. Men engaged in displacement behaviour about twice as often as women, and subsequently reported lower levels of stress. Bivariate correlations revealed that for men, higher rates of displacement behaviour were associated with decreased self-reported stress, fewer mistakes in the cognitive task and a trend towards lower heart rate; no relationships between displacement behaviour and stress measures were found for women. Moreover, moderation analyses revealed that high rates of displacement behaviour were associated with lower stress levels in men but not in women, and that high displacement behaviour rates were associated with poorer cognitive performance in women, but not men. These results point to an important sex difference in coping strategies, and highlight new avenues for research into sex biases in stress-related disorders.
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Are Some Adolescents Differentially Susceptible to the Influence of Bullying on Depression?
Priya Iyer, Angela Liegey Dougall & Lauri Jensen-Campbell
Journal of Research in Personality, forthcoming
Abstract:
Not all children react to being bullied in the same way. Some children may be more predisposed to depression when bullied than are other children. Using a GxE approach, this study examined the influence of a genetic polymorphism in the serotonin transport gene (5-HTTLPR) on the victimization-depression link. The validity of the diathesis-stress versus environmental susceptibility hypothesis was tested. A total of 157 adolescents (Mage = 12.21) took part in this study. For adolescents with the S,S/S,L variants, victimization was positively related to depression. No relationship between victimization and depression was found for children with the L,L variant. Findings further suggest that the influence of 5HTTLPR on the association between victimization and depression more closely follow an environmental susceptibility model.
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Procrastination and Stress: Exploring the Role of Self-compassion
Fuschia Sirois
Self and Identity, forthcoming
Abstract:
Although previous research has demonstrated that procrastinators experience high levels of stress, less is known about why procrastination is linked to stress. This study is the first to investigate self-compassion as a mediator of the relationship between trait procrastination and stress. Across four samples (145 undergraduates, 339 undergraduates, 190 undergraduates, and 94 community adults) trait procrastination was associated with lower levels of self-compassion and higher levels of stress. A meta-analysis of these effects revealed a moderate negative association of procrastination with self-compassion. In all four samples, self-compassion mediated the relationship between stress and procrastination. These findings suggest that lower levels of self-compassion may explain some of the stress experienced by procrastinators and interventions that promote self-compassion could therefore be beneficial for these individuals.
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Life stress impairs self-control in early adolescence
Angela Duckworth, Betty Kim & Eli Tsukayama
Frontiers in Psychology, January 2013
Abstract:
The importance of self-control to a wide range of developmental outcomes prompted the current investigation of negative life events and self-control in early adolescence. In three prospective, longitudinal studies, negative life events reported by the mother (in Study 1) or child (in Studies 2 and 3) predicted rank-order decreases in self-control over time. In all studies, self-control was measured at two different time points using questionnaires completed by three separate raters, including a classroom teacher who knew the child well and two other raters (parents, caregivers, and/or the child himself/herself). Psychological distress measured in Studies 2 and 3 mediated the deleterious effects of negative life events on self-control. These findings extend prior experimental laboratory research documenting the acute effects of stress on self-control.
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Prenatal maternal mood is associated with altered diurnal cortisol in adolescence
Kieran O'Donnell et al.
Psychoneuroendocrinology, forthcoming
Background: Experimental animal work shows that prenatal stress has a persisting effect on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis of offspring. The implications of these findings for human health and development are not yet clear.
Methods: The data are based on the ALSPAC cohort, a prospective longitudinal study of a community sample that has followed mothers and children from pregnancy. When the children were aged 15 years, diurnal cortisol samples were collected at wake-up, 30 min post-awakening and at afternoon and evening times on up to three consecutive days on n = 889 adolescents. Diurnal cortisol was predicted from prenatal anxiety and depression, obstetric, life-style, socio-demographic, and postnatal covariates.
Results: Multilevel model analysis indicated that maternal prenatal anxiety was associated with a modest alteration of diurnal cortisol, indexed by a reduced cortisol awakening response and flatter diurnal slope. The effects were independent of psychosocial and obstetric covariates and measures of maternal postnatal anxiety; effects were similar for prenatal maternal depression. There was no association between adolescent cortisol and paternal prenatal anxiety.
Conclusions: There are small but persisting associations between maternal prenatal mood and diurnal cortisol in the child that persist into adolescence and may constitute a programming effect.
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Prenatal Maternal Anxiety Predicts Reduced Adaptive Immunity in Infants
Thomas O'Connor et al.
Brain, Behavior, and Immunity, forthcoming
Abstract:
Prenatal anxiety has been linked with altered immune function in offspring in animal studies, but the relevance for human health is unknown. We examined prenatal maternal anxiety as a predictor of adaptive immunity in infants at 2 and 6 months of age as part of a prospective longitudinal study. The humoral immune response to hepatitis B vaccine was assessed at 2 months (n=80) and 6 months (n=76) of age. Prenatal anxiety predicted lower hepatitis B antibody titers at 6 months of age independent of obstetric and socio-demographic covariates; the effects were limited to those infants who had not completed the 3-dose vaccine series (for transformed titer values, r= -.36, p<.05). Cell-mediated immune responses at 2 (n=56) and 6 (n=54) months of age were examined by ELISpot assays for interferon(IFN)-γ, interleukin(IL)-2, and IL-4 responder cell frequencies to three antigens: hepatitis B surface antigen, tetanus toxoid, and phytohaemagglutinin (PHA). Prenatal maternal anxiety was associated with reduced IFN-γ and increased IL-4 responder cell frequencies at 6 months of age, independent of obstetric and socio-demographic covariates. No effect of prenatal anxiety was found on adaptive immunity at 2 months of age. The findings provide the first demonstration in humans that prenatal anxiety alters adaptive immunity in the infant.
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Does Antenatal Maternal Psychological Distress Affect Placental Circulation in the Third Trimester?
Anne Helbig et al.
PLoS ONE, February 2013
Introduction: Some types of antenatal maternal psychological distress may be associated with reduced fetal growth and birthweight. A stress-mediated reduction in placental blood flow has been suggested as a mechanism. Previous studies have examined this using ultrasound-derived arterial resistance measures in the uterine (UtA) and umbilical (UA) arteries, with mixed conclusions. However, a reduction in placental volume blood flow may occur before changes in arterial resistance measures are seen. Fetoplacental volume blood flow can be quantified non-invasively in the umbilical vein (UV). Our objective was to study whether specific types of maternal psychological distress affect the placental circulation, using volume blood flow quantification in addition to arterial resistance measures.
Methods: This was a prospective observational study of 104 non-smoking pregnant women (gestational age 30 weeks) with uncomplicated obstetric histories. Psychological distress was measured by General Health Questionnaire-28 (subscales anxiety and depression) and Impact of Event Scale-22 (subscales intrusion, avoidance and arousal). UtA and UA resistance measures and UV volume blood flow normalized for fetal abdominal circumference, were obtained by Doppler ultrasound.
Results: IES intrusion scores above the mean were associated with a reduction in normalized UV volume blood flow (corresponding to -0.61 SD; P = 0.003). Adjusting for UA resistance increased the strength of this association (difference -0.66 SD; P<0.001). Other distress types were not associated with UV volume blood flow. Maternal distress was not associated with arterial resistance measures, despite adjustment for confounders.
Conclusions: Intrusive thoughts and emotional distress regarding the fetus were associated with reduced fetoplacental volume blood flow in third trimester. Uterine and umbilical artery resistance measures were not associated with maternal distress. Our findings support a decrease in fetoplacental blood flow as a possible pathway between maternal distress and reduced fetal growth.
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Interoceptive awareness as a moderator of affective responses to social exclusion
Natalie Werner et al.
Journal of Psychophysiology, Winter 2013, Pages 39-50
Abstract:
Previous research has yielded inconsistent results concerning affective reactions to social exclusion. The present study provides evidence that conscious perception of bodily signals ("interoceptive awareness") constitutes an important moderating factor in this context. We compared participants with high versus low cardiac interoceptive awareness in regard to affective, cognitive, and physiological measures while they were included and excluded in a discussion with confederates. Participants with high interoceptive awareness showed a smaller decrease of positive affect and perceived acceptance as well as a smaller increase of negative affect and perceived rejection when comparing an inclusion phase with a subsequent exclusion phase than did participants with low interoceptive awareness. No significant differences in cognitive and physiological measures were observed. We assume that individuals with high interoceptive awareness, to whom physiological signals are more easily accessible, reduce aversive states to a larger degree by using somatic information for self-regulation.
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Monischa Chatterjee, Nicola Baumann & Danny Osborne
Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, forthcoming
Abstract:
A low ability to self-regulate emotions (state orientation) is associated with reduced well-being - especially under stress. Until now, research has approached this topic from an asocial perspective that views the self as devoid from relatedness concerns. However, people are social creatures who benefit from their relationships with others. As such, we expected that personally valuing (Study 1) and experimentally priming (Study 2) a sense of relatedness with others would act as a buffer against stress-related impairments in state-oriented individuals. In Study 1, high (vs. low) benevolence values removed the adverse effect of state orientation on well-being found under stressful life circumstances. In Study 2, focusing on similarities (vs. differences) while comparing oneself with a friend removed the adverse effect of state orientation on recovery from a negative mood induction. Our findings suggest that individuals with low self-regulatory competencies may profit from valuing and directing their attention toward their relatedness with others.
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Prenatal Stress and Risk of Spontaneous Abortion
Tamar Wainstock et al.
Psychosomatic Medicine, forthcoming
Objective: The aim of this study was to evaluate the association between exposure to life-threatening rocket attacks and spontaneous abortions (SAs).
Study Design: This is a historical cohort study comparing 1345 pregnancies of female residents of a town exposed to rocket attacks with 2143 pregnancies of female residents of an unexposed town. Demographic and medical data were obtained from hospital records and exposure information from official local databases. Intensity of exposure was calculated for preconception and pregnancy periods.
Results: Compared with unexposed group, women in the exposed group had higher rates of SA (6.9% versus 4.7%, adjusted odds ratio = 1.59, 95% confidence interval = 1.17-2.2, p = .003). Intensity of preconception and pregnancy exposure were nonlinearly associated with SA risk; both the highest and the lowest quintiles of exposure were associated with increased risk of SA.
Conclusions: Stress during preconception and pregnancy was associated with increased risk of SA.
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Michael Witthöft & James Rubin
Journal of Psychosomatic Research, March 2013, Pages 206-212
Objective: Medically unsubstantiated ‘intolerances' to foods, chemicals and environmental toxins are common and are frequently discussed in the media. Idiopathic environmental intolerance attributed to electromagnetic fields (IEI-EMF) is one such condition and is characterized by symptoms that are attributed to exposure to electromagnetic fields (EMF). In this experiment, we tested whether media reports promote the development of this condition.
Methods: Participants (N = 147) were randomly assigned to watch a television report about the adverse health effects of WiFi (n = 76) or a control film (n = 71). After watching their film, participants received a sham exposure to a WiFi signal (15 min). The principal outcome measure was symptom reports following the sham exposure. Secondary outcomes included worries about the health effects of EMF, attributing symptoms to the sham exposure and increases in perceived sensitivity to EMF.
Results: 82 (54%) of the 147 participants reported symptoms which they attributed to the sham exposure. The experimental film increased: EMF related worries (β = 0.19; P = .019); post sham exposure symptoms among participants with high pre-existing anxiety (β = 0.22; P = .008); the likelihood of symptoms being attributed to the sham exposure among people with high anxiety (β = .31; P = .001); and the likelihood of people who attributed their symptoms to the sham exposure believing themselves to be sensitive to EMF (β = 0.16; P = .049).
Conclusion: Media reports about the adverse effects of supposedly hazardous substances can increase the likelihood of experiencing symptoms following sham exposure and developing an apparent sensitivity to it. Greater engagement between journalists and scientists is required to counter these negative effects.
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Allison Milner, Andrew Page & Anthony LaMontagne
Journal of Epidemiology & Community Health, March 2013, Pages 237-244
Background: The relationship between unemployment and suicide may be sensitive to demographic factors, national unemployment rates, and length of time without employment. This study investigated these factors in relation to suicide in Australia for the period 1985-2006, in an ecological study.
Methods: The outcome variable was annual suicide rate by age group, sex and the eight states and territories over 22 years of observation (total observations=1760). The main predictor variable was the average duration of unemployment in the population, categorised into three time periods (<2 weeks, 2-4 weeks, >4 weeks). Poisson regression models were used to investigate the relationship between duration of unemployment and suicide over the years 1985-2006 in a series of cross-sectional analyses. Interaction analyses indicated significant differences during periods of declining or increasing labour market opportunity and by age group.
Results: During periods of declining unemployment rates in the country, longer durations of unemployment were associated with higher male suicide rates. During periods of increasing unemployment in the country, longer unemployment duration was associated with lower male suicide rates. Effect modification was also apparent by age-group, with stronger associations between unemployment duration and male suicide evident in those aged 25-34 and 55-64, and weaker associations in those aged 15-24 and 44-54 years. Longer length of unemployment was not associated with an increase in female suicide rates.
Conclusions: The labour market opportunities in Australia modified the effect of duration of unemployment on suicide, and the effect was more prominent in men and older age groups. This may reflect social norms and acceptability about unemployment, as well as life-stage influences associated with transitions into and out of the labour market.
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Stress disrupts response memory retrieval
Friederike Guenzel, Oliver Wolf & Lars Schwabe
Psychoneuroendocrinology, forthcoming
Abstract:
Stress effects on memory are well-known. Most studies, however, focused on the impact of stress on hippocampus-dependent ‘declarative' memory processes. Less is known about whether stress influences also striatum-based memory processes, such as stimulus-response (S-R) memory. First evidence from rodent experiments shows that glucocorticoid stress hormones may enhance the consolidation of S-R memories. Whether stress affects also S-R memory retrieval remains largely elusive. Therefore, we tested in the present experiment in humans the effect of stress on the retrieval of S-R memories. Healthy men and women were trained to locate three objects in an S-R version of a virtual eight-arm radial maze. One week later, participants underwent a stressor or a control condition before their memory of the S-R task was tested. Our results showed that participants (n = 43) who were exposed to the stressor before retention testing made significantly more errors in this test trial, suggesting that stress impaired S-R memory retrieval. Moreover, high cortisol concentrations were associated with reduced S-R memory. These findings indicate that stress may affect memory retrieval processes in humans beyond hippocampal ‘declarative' memory.