Dependent
Parent-child Communication and Marijuana Initiation: Evidence Using Discrete-Time Survival Analysis
James Nonnemaker et al.
Addictive Behaviors, December 2012, Pages 1342-1348
Abstract:
This study supplements existing literature on the relationship between parent-child communication and adolescent drug use by exploring whether parental and/or adolescent recall of specific drug-related conversations differentially impact youth's likelihood of initiating marijuana use. Using discrete-time survival analysis, we estimated the hazard of marijuana initiation using a logit model to obtain an estimate of the relative risk of initiation. Our results suggest that parent-child communication about drug use is either not protective (no effect) or - in the case of youth reports of communication - potentially harmful (leading to increased likelihood of marijuana initiation).
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Socioeconomic Status and Substance Use Among Young Adults: A Comparison Across Constructs and Drugs
Megan Patrick et al.
Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, September 2012, Pages 772-782
Objective: Little consensus exists regarding the relationship between socioeconomic status (SES) and substance use. This study examined the associations of three indicators of family SES during childhood - income, wealth, and parental education - with smoking, alcohol use, and marijuana use during young adulthood.
Method: Data were obtained from the national Panel Study of Income Dynamics, a survey of U.S. families that incorporates data from parents and their children. In 2005 and 2007, the Panel Study of Income Dynamics was supplemented with two waves of Transition into Adulthood data drawn from a national sample of young adults, 18-23 years old. Data from the young adults (N = 1,203; 66.1% White; 51.5% female) on their current use of alcohol, cigarettes, and marijuana were used as outcome variables in logistic regressions. Socioeconomic background was calculated from parental reports of education, wealth, and income during the respondent's childhood (birth through age 17 years).
Results: Smoking in young adulthood was associated with lower childhood family SES, although the association was explained by demographic and social role covariates. Alcohol use and marijuana use in young adulthood were associated with higher childhood family SES, even after controlling for covariates.
Conclusions: Findings based on three indicators of family background SES - income, wealth, and parental education - converged in describing unique patterns for smoking and for alcohol and marijuana use among young adults, although functional relationships across SES measures varied. Young adults with the highest family background SES were most prone to alcohol and marijuana use.
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James White, Laust Mortensen & David Batty
Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 1 September 2012, Pages 164-168
Background: Recent reports have linked cognitive ability (IQ) with alcohol dependency, but the relationship with illegal drug use is not well understood.
Methods: Participants were 14,362 male US Vietnam veterans with IQ test results at entry into military service in 1965-1971 (mean age 22.58) who participated in a telephone interview in 1985-1986. A structured diagnostic telephone interview was used to ascertain habitual drug use during military service (for once a week, ?3 months) and in civilian life (in the past 12 months, ?once a week), combat exposure, and post-traumatic stress disorder according to established Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental disorders criteria (version III).
Results: In unadjusted analysis, men with high IQ scores were less likely to be habitual users of cannabis (OR = 0.89, 95% CI = 0.86, 0.93), cocaine (OR = 0.69, 95% CI = 0.61, 0.78), heroin (OR = 0.80, 95% CI = 0.73, 0.88), amphetamines (OR = 0.90, 95% CI = 0.83, 0.98), barbiturates (OR = 0.79, 95% CI = 0.72, 0.86) and LSD (OR = 0.91, 95% CI = 0.82, 0.99) during military service and civilian life. These associations were markedly attenuated after adjustment for socioeconomic status in early and later civilian life.
Conclusion: In this cohort, socioeconomic position might lie on the pathway linking earlier IQ and later habitual drug use but might also act as a surrogate for IQ. This suggests interventions to prevent drug use could attempt to improve early life IQ and opportunities for employment.
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Xiaomeng Xu et al.
PLoS ONE, July 2012
Abstract:
Self-expanding experiences like falling in love or engaging in novel, exciting and interesting activities activate the same brain reward mechanism (mesolimbic dopamine pathway) that reinforces drug use and abuse, including tobacco smoking. This suggests the possibility that reward from smoking is substitutable by self-expansion (through competition with the same neural system), potentially aiding cessation efforts. Using a model of self-expansion in the context of romantic love, the present fMRI experiment examined whether, among nicotine-deprived smokers, relationship self-expansion is associated with deactivation of cigarette cue-reactivity regions. Results indicated that among participants who were experiencing moderate levels of craving, cigarette cue-reactivity regions (e.g., cuneus and posterior cingulate cortex) showed significantly less activation during self-expansion conditions compared with control conditions. These results provide evidence that rewards from one domain (self-expansion) can act as a substitute for reward from another domain (nicotine) to attenuate cigarette cue reactivity.
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Daniel Snipes & Eric Benotsch
Addictive Behaviors, forthcoming
Abstract:
Alcohol mixed with energy drink (AmED) consumption has garnered considerable attention in the literature in recent years. Drinking AmED beverages has been associated with a host of negative outcomes. The present study sought to examine associations between AmED consumption and high-risk sexual behaviors in a sample of young adults. Participants (N = 704; 59.9% female) completed an online survey assessing AmED consumption, other drug use, and sexual behavior. A total of 19.4% of the entire sample (and 28.8% of those who reported using alcohol) reported consuming AmED. Participants who reported consuming AmED were significantly more likely to report marijuana, cocaine, and ecstasy use. Those who reported consuming AmED also had increased odds of engaging in high-risk sexual behaviors, including unprotected sex, sex while under the influence of drugs, and sex after having too much to drink. Relationships between AmED consumption and sexual behavior remained significant after accounting for the influence of demographic factors and other substance use. Results add to the literature documenting negative consequences for AmED consumers, which may include alcohol dependence, binge drinking, and the potential for sexually transmitted infections via high-risk sexual behavior.
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Effects of Repeated Exposure to a Graphic Smoking Warning Image
Sally Rooke, John Malouff & Jan Copeland
Current Psychology, September 2012, Pages 282-290
Abstract:
Several countries have introduced graphic warning images aimed at discouraging smoking. However, the images may be subject to an habituation effect. This study examined the effects of repeated exposure to an image of smoking-related mouth cancer in 24 smokers, 20 ex-smokers, and 39 individuals who had never smoked regularly. Participants viewed the warning image seven times over 7 to 14 days. Trend analysis showed that the smokers had high distress initially when viewing the image, followed by a significant lessening of image-related distress that leveled out over time. Nonetheless, viewing the image had a significant linearly increasing positive effect on their intention to quit smoking, with no sign that the effect of the image on intention was wearing out. The two groups of nonsmokers showed response patterns different from those of the smokers, including signs of habituation to the image. Other results showed a significant relationship between experiencing a high level of distress when viewing the image and having a negative attitude toward smoking. The implications of these findings are discussed in light of anti-smoking campaigns.
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Alexis Duncan et al.
Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 1 September 2012, Pages 140-145
Objective: The objective of this study was to determine whether race/ethnicity was associated with time to smoking initiation and time from first cigarette to onset of DSM-IV nicotine dependence (ND) after adjusting for familial and individual psychosocial risk factors.
Methods: Cox proportional hazards models with time-dependent covariates were used to analyze data from 1376 offspring aged 12-33 years from 532 families at high risk for substance use problems due to paternal alcohol problems and 235 low risk families. Fifty-six percent of the sample self-identified as African-American (AA) and 44% were mainly of European descent.
Results: Controlling for covariates, AAs began smoking at older ages (HR = 0.58; 95% CI: 0.48-0.70) and had longer times between smoking initiation and onset of ND compared to non-AAs (HR = 0.25, 95% CI: 0.16-0.39 for ND onset occurring <18 years and HR = 0.49, 95% CI: 0.30-0.80 for ND onsets ?age 18). After additionally controlling for number of cigarettes smoked daily, the racial/ethnic effects for onset of ND were attenuated, but remained statistically significant for ND onset <18 (HR = 0.34, 95% CI: 0.19-0.61); however, the estimate was no longer significant for later ND onset (HR = 0.84, 95% CI: 0.50-1.41).
Conclusions: AA adolescents and young adults initiate smoking at older ages and have longer transition periods between initiation and onset of ND compared to non-AAs, even after controlling for many relevant psychiatric and psychosocial covariates; however, racial/ethnic differences in time to onset of nicotine dependence in late adolescence and young adulthood may be explained by differences in daily quantity smoked.
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Joseph LaBrie, Lucy Napper & Tehniat Ghaidarov
Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, September 2012, Pages 726-730
Objective: Despite prevention efforts, driving after drinking (DAD) is a prevalent high-risk behavior among college students and is a leading cause of death and injury. Examination of factors predicting future DAD behavior is necessary to develop efficacious targeted interventions to reduce this behavior among college students. The current study evaluated demographic, social cognitive, and behavioral predictors of DAD using longitudinal data.
Method: Participants were 655 nonabstaining college students (67.2% female; 60.3% White; mean age = 19.3 years) who completed online surveys at two time points 12 months apart.
Results: Results revealed that participants consistently overestimated their peers' approval (injunctive norms) of DAD. In a three-step hierarchical logistic regression model, injunctive norms, age, and past DAD behavior uniquely contributed to the prediction of this behavior 12 months later. Neither sex nor membership in a sorority or fraternity emerged as significant predictors.
Conclusions: The findings provide important new insights into the longitudinal predictors of DAD among college students and highlight the need for DAD interventions, particularly among older students.
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Youth Employment and Substance Use
Robert Kaestner et al.
Social Science Research, forthcoming
Abstract:
A significant portion of teens work while in school and the consequences of that work are of potential concern to society. While there is widespread support for combining work and school, and some evidence that employment has positive effects on youth development, previous research has revealed some potentially harmful consequences of employment among teens. In this paper, we investigate the relationship between teen employment and substance use. We extended this literature by studying two different cohorts of youth, and by exploiting arguably exogenous variation in youth employment and earnings caused by changes in minimum wages and the business cycle (unemployment). Estimates suggest that hours of work are positively associated with alcohol and cigarette use. However, if selection on unobserved variables were equal to selection on observed variables, these associations would be close to zero. With respect to the association between earnings and substance use, the evidence is less clear.
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Adolescent drug use and the deterrent effect of school-imposed penalties
G.R. Waddell
Economics of Education Review, forthcoming
Abstract:
Estimates of the effect of school-imposed penalties for drug use on a student's consumption of marijuana are biased if both are determined by unobservable school or individual attributes. Reverse causality is also a potential challenge to retrieving estimates of the causal relationship, as the severity of school sanctions may simply reflect the need for more-severe sanctions. Using the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health, I offer an instrumental-variables approach to retrieving an estimate of the causal response of marijuana use to sanctions and thereby demonstrate the efficacy of school-imposed penalties as a deterrent to adolescent drug use. This suggests that school sanctions may have important long-run benefits.
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Nina Shah et al.
Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 1 September 2012, Pages 19-26
Background: The objective of this study was to characterize unintentional drug overdose death patterns among Hispanic ethnicity/sex strata by residence in New Mexico counties that border Mexico and non-border counties.
Methods: We analyzed medical examiner data for all unintentional drug overdose death in New Mexico during 2005-2009. Logistic and Poisson regression was used to examine the relationship of unintentional drug overdose death with border residence and demographics. Risk of overdose death was examined by the interactions of ethnicity, sex and border residence.
Results: During 2005-2009, the statewide drug overdose death rate was 17.6 per 100,000 (n = 1812). Border decedents were more likely to have died from overdose of prescription opioids other than methadone (Schedule II, Adjusted Odds Ratio (aOR) = 1.98; Schedule III/IV, aOR = 1.56) but less likely to have died from heroin overdose (aOR = 0.35), compared to non-border decedents. In population-based analyses, people living in border counties had lowest rates of overall overdose death and from illicit drugs, particularly heroin and cocaine. Hispanic males (adjusted incidence rate ratio [aRR] = 2.41), Hispanic females (aRR = 1.77) and non-Hispanic males (aRR = 1.37) from non-border counties had higher risk of drug overdose death than their counterparts from border counties. Border residence had no effect on risk of drug overdose death among non-Hispanic females.
Conclusions: Residents in border counties incurred a protective effect for drug overdose death, most pronounced among Hispanics. There is a component of overdose death risk for which border residence is a proxy, likely an array of cultural and healthcare-related factors.
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Evaluating Self-Checkout Lanes as a Potential Source of Alcoholic Beverages for Minors
John Clapp et al.
Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, September 2012, Pages 713-717
Objective: This exploratory study examined the ability of young adults to purchase alcoholic beverages through self-checkout lanes without being asked for age verification. Although the minimum drinking age in all 50 U. S. states is 21 years of age, drinking among underage persons (ages 12-20) remains a serious public health concern. Self-checkout options in off-sale alcoholic beverage outlets (e.g., grocery store chains, liquor stores) may represent a potential source of illicit access to alcohol compared with traditional checkout purchases.
Method: A total of 216 stores with self-checkout lanes were randomly selected in five Southern California counties. Pseudo-patrons independently judged to be 23 years of age or younger purchased alcohol in each store.
Results: Overall, 8.8% of all purchase observations resulted in a failure to ask for identification to purchase alcohol.
Conclusions: The growing number of self-checkout options at supermarkets can be a potential source of alcohol for minors; however, the risk they pose is similar to that of traditional checkout purchases. Policies relating to the purchase of alcohol at any store, regardless of checkout type, should be modified so that every purchase of alcohol requires an identification card to be swiped regardless of age.
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J-B Pingault et al.
Molecular Psychiatry, forthcoming
Abstract:
Numerous prospective studies have shown that children diagnosed with attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) are at higher risk of long-term substance abuse/dependence. However, there are three important limits to these studies: (a) most did not differentiate the role of hyperactivity and inattention; (b) most did not control for associated behavioral problems; and (c) most did not consider females. Our aim was to clarify the unique and interactive contributions of childhood inattention and hyperactivity symptoms to early adulthood substance abuse/dependence. Behavioral problems of 1803 participants (814 males) in a population-based longitudinal study were assessed yearly between 6 and 12 years by mothers and teachers. The prevalence of substance abuse/dependence at age 21 years was 30.7% for nicotine, 13.4% for alcohol, 9.1% for cannabis and 2.0% for cocaine. The significant predictors of nicotine dependence were inattention (odds ratio (OR): 2.25; 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.63-3.11) and opposition (OR: 1.65; 95%: 1.20-2.28). Only opposition contributed to the prediction of cannabis dependence (OR: 2.33; 95% CI: 1.40-3.87) and cocaine dependence (OR: 2.97; 95% CI: 1.06-8.57). The best behavioral predictor of alcohol abuse/dependence (opposition) was only marginally significant (OR: 1.38; 95% CI: 0.98-1.95). Frequent oppositional behaviors during elementary school were clearly the most pervasive predictors of substance abuse/dependence in early adulthood. The association of childhood ADHD with substance abuse/dependence is largely attributable to its association with opposition problems during childhood. However, inattention remained an important predictor of nicotine dependence, in line with genetic and molecular commonalities between the two phenotypes suggested in the literature.
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Cigarette Price Minimization Strategies Used by Adults
Michael Pesko, Judy Kruger & Andrew Hyland
American Journal of Public Health, September 2012, Pages e19-e21
Abstract:
We used multivariate logistic regressions to analyze data from the 2006 to 2007 Tobacco Use Supplement of the Current Population Survey, a nationally representative sample of adults. We explored use of cigarette price minimization strategies, such as purchasing cartons of cigarettes, purchasing in states with lower after-tax cigarette prices, and purchasing on the Internet. Racial/ethnic minorities and persons with low socioeconomic status used these strategies less frequently at last purchase than did White and high-socioeconomic-status respondents.
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Cassandra Okechukwu et al.
Social Science & Medicine, October 2012, Pages 1379-1386
Abstract:
Little research has been conducted on the influence of macroeconomic environments on smoking among blue-collar workers, a group with high smoking prevalence and that is especially vulnerable to the effects of changing economic circumstances. Using data from 52,418 construction workers in the Tobacco Use Supplement to the United States Current Population Survey, we examined the association of labor market shock, cigarette prices, and state antismoking sentiments with smoking status and average number of cigarettes smoked daily. Data analysis included the use of multiple linear and logistic regressions, which employed the sampling and replicate weights to account for sampling design. Unemployed, American-Indian, lower-educated and lower-income workers had higher smoking rates. Labor market shock had a quadratic association, which was non-significant for smoking status and significant for number of cigarettes. The association of cigarette prices with smoking status became non-significant after adjusting for state-level antismoking sentiment. State-level antismoking sentiment had significant quadratic association with smoking status among employed workers and significant quadratic association with number of cigarettes for all smokers. The study highlights how both workplace-based smoking cessation interventions and antismoking sentiments could further contribute to disparities in smoking by employment status.
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Experimental Test of Social Norms Theory in a Real-World Drinking Environment
Mark Johnson
Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, September 2012, Pages 851-859
Objective: Social norms theory articulates that behavior is influenced by perceptions of behavioral norms. Social norms interventions attempt to modify perceptions of what behavior is normative as a means of influencing actual behavior. Social norms interventions have been widely used on college campuses to reduce the level of student drinking. The effectiveness of these interventions has been mixed. A social norms program might fail because the intervention operations failed to sufficiently implement social norms theory in the real world or because of the theory's limitations. Our research involves an experimental examination of the impact of social norms information on actual drinking behavior within a real-world drinking environment.
Method: Nearly 3,000 participants were interviewed and randomly assigned to one of nine social norms feedback conditions before heading to bars and nightclubs in Tijuana, Mexico. These same participants were resampled, interviewed again, and subjected to breath alcohol analysis when they returned to the United States.
Results: We found that persons whose perceptions of normative drinking changed (became more accurate) during their visit to Tijuana consumed relatively less alcohol. We also found that providing participants with social norms feedback produced more accurate perceived norms. However, the effect sizes were too small to produce statistically significant results showing that social norms feedback could effectively reduce drinking via changing normative perceptions.
Conclusions: Our research demonstrated that providing social norms feedback changed perceived drinking norms and that changes in perceived norms were correlated with reduced drinking. Effect sizes, however, were quite small.